
Class. 
Book.. 



li 



fts^T 



G)Eyiiglitl^?. 



CJ)£URIGHT DEPOSm 






STANDARD LETTERING 



BY 



ROY C. CLAFLIN -"7x3"; 



PUBLISHED BY THE 

COLUMBIA SCHOOL OF DRAFTING 

TENTH AND G STREETS NORTHWEST 
WASHINGTON, D. C. 



I 






Copyrighted, 1916. by Roy C. Claflin 



t^ 



ill 

:ep -2 ur^ 



S)aA438235 



THE underlying principles in the art of lettering involve many elements 
which are deceptive and require careful observation. 

A study of the origin of the standards of lettering discloses many 
interesting and instructive features. To become a master of lettering one 
must, to some extent at least, understand the fundamental logic of the sub- 
ject. Upon making such a study we can formulate our observations into 
rules to be followed in practice. 








Fig. I 



Fig. 2 



In correct usage the upper parts of the figures 8 and 3, also of the letters Z, X, B, H, E and S, 
are made smaller than the lower parts. The reason for this is demonstrated in figures i and 2. 

In figure i the upper and lower parts are made mechanically equal. In figure 2 the upper parts 
are smaller. We accept the characters of figure 2 as the correct forms because in figure i they appear 
"top heavy." We must adapt the proportions to a pleasing appearance and not to mechanical exactness. 

An important factor which must be dealt with in lettering is that the human eye is not always a 
true discerner. A few simple well-known diagrams in addition to those of figures i and 2 will illus- 
trate this point. See figure 3. 



I 



A B 







Lines AA, BB, and CC are absolutely straight lines. Lines i and 2 are parallel with each other 
as also are lines 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. Circle M is of the same diameter as square N. 

These statements appear false to the eye; but they are easily proved true by test. This principle 
of "optical illusion" has been a great factor in the determination of the rules of lettering and in the 
spacing apart of letters in words. 

The principle illustrated in the circle and square of the same diameter (M and N, fig. 3), makes it 
necessary that the "round" letters be given a greater height than the "square" letters, in order that 
they may all appear to be of a uniform height. Hence, one of our rules — 

RULE I. All curved portions of letters touching the upper or lower guide line extend beyond. 

This rule applies to all styles of lettering. A tendency to exaggerate this distance beyond the 
guide lines must be guarded against. 




Fig. 4 



Fig. 5 



Mechanical equality and mechanical spacing are foreign to correct lettering. The letters of figure 
4 delnrate thT AU the letters in that case are equal in width and are spaced equally apart -The 
4 aemonstrdLc l ^ . necessity of assigning d fferent and specific widths to all letters. 

';,v*e rshow°the sfn^rrettS: ::TSur°:,. b.U «f.h ,he,r I-OP- Relative w,dths and spacng 
o^art TW nresent therefore a much more satisfactory appearance. The widths assigned to the 
diSreiJ kt^te?s frf nofrmatter of guess-work or the product of the mind of any one person, but are 

""'^vVr? ImVo^aS're'mStering which is commonly violated by the inexperienced is as follows. 
T3TTT F , Tn the letters VAN M, W, Y, K, X, and U, that is, the letters which offer a 
choi« ot directionta the Hght and heavy strokes/are shaded on the "down" stroke, or the stroke 

which slants from upper left to the lower right. 

The heavv side of the "U" is easily remembered as it was originally made like the "V," (the 
present 'W-'^being a "double U" of%he old style "U"), so that it is shaded on the same side as 

^^^ 7hil rule applies not only to all styles of Roman Letters, but to all standard "shaded" letters 
Ther^ is but a sS^le case in this style in which a heavy stroke slants from upper right to the lower eft 
?t fsthe "Z"; but as it offers no "choice" as to which stroke is shaded, it does not come under the lule 

^"'Ste rules will be formulated as we proceed with the study.of the individual letters. The style of 
letters, etc., by the use of the two triangles. 



B' C a' 





Fig. 6 



Fig. 7 



Figure 6 illustrates the method of drawing vertical and horizontal lines, the same method being 
applied for drawing lines parallel or perpendicular to a given line at any angle. Place either triangle 
with its right angle in the position of point B, and its edge AB lying along the lower guide line (or the 
upper guide line could be used). Place the other triangle against the first one (usually the longest side 
is used) and hold it securely down ag-ainst the paper with the left hand ; then with the right hand slide 
the first triangle to the positions desired to draw horizontal lines along the. edge AB as at DE, or to 
draw vertical lines along the edge BC as at HI. This method can be used for laying out the guide lines 
themselves. In that case the longest edge of the 30° triangle is preferred in the position of AB. 

Figure 7 illustrates the method of bisecting a space. Lay the triangles in the positions indicated 
to find the center point of the letter A, for instance. AVith the one triangle in the dotted position draw 
line BB', through point B, and in the position shown in solid lines draw line AA' through point A. Then 
by turning the triangle draw line CD vertically through the intersection of lines A A' and BB'. This 
line marks the midpoint between A and B. 




3t±t 




. ROMAN LETTERING 

(Upper Case or Capitals) 

Note. — The use of the terms "upper case" (capital letters) and "lower case" 
(small letters) originated with the printer, whose cases of type are arranged with 
the capitals above the cases containing the small letters. 



Fig. 8 



We will study these letters not in their alphabetical order, but in their logical order according to 
the principles involved. 

To enable us to observe the formation of each letter more conveniently we will study them in out- 
line. The complete letter is usually filled in solid. 

The height of the letter is divided into seven equal parts, one of these parts being taken as the 
unit of measure. (For a special scale giving these divisions, called the "Topographers' Scale," see page 
43.) The thickness of the "I" and of the heavy straight strokes of the other letters is one unit. We 
will adopt "U" as the abbreviation of the unit of measin^e. The dimensions for the "I" are indicated, in 
the accompanying sketch (figttre 8). 

The curve at C is a quarter of a circle with a radius of one-half a unit. That is, if the arc were con- 
tinuous it would form a perfect circle and would be one unit in diameter, the center of the circle being 
one-half unit from the stem and the top line of the letter. This arc is called the "grace curve" as its 
purpose is to give grace to the letter. 

Letters must, of course, be laid out in pencil before being inked. The pencil lines should be light 
and fine, made with a slender, sharp point. Do not bear on the pencil, as it makes it difficult to ink 
in and in case the position or a part of the letter is altered the original lines would be in evidence as 
grooves in the paper. A comparatively hard pencil should be used, depending on the nature of the 
surface of the paper. The finer and more clear cut the pencil lin^s are, the easier it is to ink in neatly 
and correctly. 

RULE 3. Be sure the letter is correct in pencil before it is inked — leaving nothing to be cor- 
rected while inking. 



(lu) 



-(or .14)= U 



-51.0-^ 



K- 5"->-, 



7^ 




7u 



/^ 



V- 



ufuiu 



U {^^/t/Yj = y /re/;^/?r of /e/r&jT 




A 






-i i__. 



,-L:r 



It is advised that the entire alphabet be laid out in pencil first, one inch in height, with a special 
view to studying- the formation of each individual letter, before attempting any ink work. 

RULE 4. The straight lines may be ruled, but all curved lines must be drawn freehand. 

The letter "H" is 5}^ units wide, and is formed by joining two Ts with a horizontal line 34 ^i^it 
above the center of the letter. The center is found by measuring 3^4 units from the top or bottom, 
or by bisecting -the height by the use of the triangles. 

The curve on the foot of the "L" is the fourth part of an ellipse, not a circle. The ellipse if com- 
pleted would be about 4 units high. 

The arms of the "T" are the same shape and size as the foot of the "L." 




RULE 5. In laying off the heavy stroke or the stem of the "Z," its width — one unit — must be laid 
off at right angles. This applies also to the heavy stroke of all letters. 

This is done by measuring from the upper right hand corner of the "Z" at right angles to what 
you can easily estimate will be the slant of the heavy stroke. Connect the point just laid off with the 
lower left corner of the letter and draw the other side of the heavy stroke parallel to the first line. 

In the N and M, note that the lower line of the heavy slant stroke crosses the upper guide line % 
unit to the left of the first light stroke, 
letters note the followinsr: 



Also in drawing the grace curves to the light strokes of the 



RULE 6. The grace curves on the vertical thin stroke of a letter are arcs of one unit radius join- 
ing the strokes one unit from the guide line. The projections are 1^2 units on each side — three 
units in all. - 

To find the point where the middle portion of the "M" touches the lower guide line, bisect the dis- 
tance from the left line of the letter to the inside of the heavy stroke at the right (using the triangle 
method). Do not bisect the total width of the M. 

The W is a letter that has always given considerable trouble owing to the difficulty of getting 
the corresponding lines parallel and the angles equal. The following' met! od, however, eliminates the dif- 
ficulties entirely, and gives a perfect "W" even should the width of the letter happen to be laid out 
incorrectly. 



A/o/'e.<7So\^e /f'rie 




Lay off the total width. Lay off "U" on the upper guide line equal to one unit (full). Bisect the 
remaining width as indicated, and draw a vertical line. Bisect the space on the lower guide line as indi- 
cated. Connect the two points thus found on the vtpper and lower guide lines with a straight line and 
draw the right hand light stroke of the W* parallel to it. Then draw the sides of the heavy strokes 
parallel to each other. This completes the W. The thickness of the second heavy stroke should be 
exactly one unit (measured at right angles), which is the test of the accuracy of your construction. The 
grace curves of the W have no specific radius in units, as is likewise the case on the slant strokes of 
the other letters. 

Note in the letters F and E that the middle portion sets one fourth of a unit above the center line 
("C. L."). 

Unlike the V, the point of the A projects ^4 U beyond the guide line. In the V draw the left 
side of the heavy stroke before laying off the unit of thickness for the other side, as this will give the 
correct angle at which to measure. Apply the same principle to the A. 



II 



7u 




In the Y, K, and X note that the light stroke is set in ^ U at the top. This prevents the letters from 
appearing top heavy. 

In the K, note that the outside line of the heavy slant stroke will, if produced, intersect the right 
side of the vertical heavy stroke at the top guide line. Draw this line before measuring the thickness of 
the slant stroke. 

To lay ofif the thickness of the heavy stroke; of the X, proceed as in the Z. 



I 



7o 



A 



2u 



^^^ 



^ 



r-^i--! 



-nr<^ 



2o 



rt^ 



THE CURVED LETTERS 



Bear in mind rules i and 4, that all curved portions of letters are made freehand ; and that all curved 
portions of letters touching the guide lines extend an eighth of a unit beyond ; also guard against ex- 
aggerating this distance. (In the drawings this distance is slig'htly exagg'erated for the sake of clarity 
of instruction.) 

Note on the heavy stroke of the U and J that the outside line starts to curve 2 U above the 
base line while the inside lines start to curve a half unit lower. The round portion of the J has a 
diameter of i}^\J. The thickness of the curved stroke of the D, and other curved letters is i^ units. 
The reason for this added thickness is to give the curved heavy strokes of letters the appearance of 
having the same thickness as the straight heavy strokes. Hence our rule: 

RULE 7. The curved heavy strokes of letters are drawn J/g U thicker than the straight heavy 
I strokes. 




The curved part of the D starts at the Hne bisecting the distance between the left lines of both 
strokes as indicated. Do not bisect the total width of the D. 

Figue 9 illustrates by steps the "skeleton method" of laying" out the inside line of the curved 
stroke of the D, and thie curved strokes of the other letters including the P, B, etc., wh'ich method in- 
sures symmetry and in the long run is an economy, of time. 

First step, draw line CD ij/g units from AB. 2d: bisect EG and FG at H and K, respectively 
(this can be done by the eye after a little practice). 3d: sketch in curves L and M. 4th: "Fatten" this 
portion of the letter by rounding out the hollows at L and M making the new curve continuous and 
tangent to CD at the midpoint, with the result as shown. 

The finished letter is often left as in the 3d step, but that is a case of sacrificing, to some extent, 
the grace of design for the advantage of speed. 




By studying the construction lines in the drawing of the O some short cuts will be discovered. 
For example note the points through which the outside curve of the letter passes. 

. The Q- is the same as the O with the addition of four semi-circles, the larger two having a 
radius of a unit and the smaller one a radius of a half unit. 

Note in the case of the P, B, and R that the middle line of the P lies below the center line ; of the 
B above; and of the B on the center line. The curved strokes of these letters are constructed accord- 
ing to figure 9, except the reverse curve of the R. The left line of that stroke lies on the hne which 
IS found as indicated. Note the upper part of the B is "set in" % U. 'Make all the four arcs of the 
curved strokes of the B meet at one point on the vertical center line. This prevents the running to- 
gether of the curved strokes when inked in, which would give too much blackness at the point of meet- 
ing. This principle also applies to the R. 



IS 



~Tl' 



7<j 




The upper parts of the C, G, and S are "set in" Ya U. The outHne of the C, if continued as in- 
dicated by the dotted Hues, would be the same as that of the O. The lower curve is "sprung out" to 
touch the line which determines the width of the letter. 

The S is usually considered the most difficult letter of the alphabet. The method illustrated 
in Figure lo reduces the drawing of that letter to its simplest elements. 




Fig. 10 



i6 



The first step in drawing the S after laying out the width of the 
letter and drawing the vertical and horizontal center lines is to mark 
off a point (A) 3^ unit below the intersection of the two center lines 
and a point (B) i}i units above point (A). These two points determine 
the thickness of the heavy stroke at its widest point. Mark off points 
(C and D) y^, U above and below the upper and lower guide lines re- 
spectively. Mark off a point (E) on the left limiting line midway be- 
tween the points A and C, and similarly mark off point F midway be- 
tween B and D. These points can be found by the construction method 
indicated in the cut. After a, little practice the position of these points 
can be determined by the eye, as can all the other points of the S. 

.1 '^^vf .r""* ^*? •' *°, ^^^^""^ '""J^^ ™^'" ^"""^^^ ^^ ^hown in the second view (Fig. 10), passing 
through the points just laid out. These curves are not half circles, but half ellipses. Per ;ct these 
curves by erasing and resketching where necessary. 

Next sketch in the inside curves as shown at G and H, third view, making them conform in sym- 
metry to the outside curves, starting to enlarge the thickness of the stroke at points ^ U from each 
gmde hue, or at points found by drawing a 30° line from the near corner of the limiting lines. (These 
points can be estimated by the eye). Perfect these curves and finish the letter as in the fourth view 




17 




A detailed explanation of the numerals, aside from the charts, is not necessary as the notations in 
the drawings are self explanatory, afid the proportions will be easily understood from the foregoing- 
explanations of the Roman Letters. The principles involved are the same. 



i8 



ABCDEFGHIJ 

KLMNOPO 
RSTUVWXYZ 

1234567890 & 



19 



THE SLANT ROMAN CAPITALS 

The proportions of the letters and hg^ures of this alphabet are the same as those of the vertical 
Roman Capitals just preceding, and those dimensions may be followed in laying out the slant 
capitals. 

The difference in principle between the vertical and slant letters is that the top guide line is, 
so to speak, moved along to the right for a distance of three-eighths (j/s) of the height of the letter. 
The top points of all the vertical lines move with the top guide line, the bottom points remaining 
stationary. This brings the formerly vertical lines to what is known as the "3 in 8" slant, being 3 
parts in 8 parts. The number of degrees of this slant is approximately 21.3°. (For a special triangle 
giving this slant see page 44. This is the "official" slant for lettering, adopted universally. 

The directions for laying out the vertical Roman Capital letters applies in the main to the slant 
letters. They may be followed accordingly, making, of course, the necessary changes occasioned by 
the slant ; for instance the radii of the grace curves will be changed. 

The following is an important point to be remembered : 

RULE 8. All measurements pertaining to the HEIGHT of slant Roman Capitals must be laid 
out VERTICALLY. 

To illustrate this point, take the Y for an example. 3^ U measured up from the base line gives 
the center line, which establishes the point where the light stroke joins. If this distance (3% U) were 
measured on the slant it would not locate the center line, the proper place for the light stroke to join 
the heavy. 

It will be observed, in this connection, that the "I," for instance, is lengthened by being con- 
verted into a slant letter of the "same height." The height, be it remembered, is measured vertically. 

20 



The strokes which were originally at an angle in the vertical letters must still have their thickness 
laid off at right angles. This principle can readily be seen when applied to the Z. In many cases, 
however, the W for example, this question makes such a minute difference that the thickness of the 
heavy stroke may be laid off horizontally. 



The principle of converting a vertical letter into 
following diagram (figure ii). 



a slant letter is graphically illustrated in the 



• This becomes 
not this - 




but this 




Fig. II 



The letter is not "rolled along," not tilted over, but the points move horizontally to the right 
until the original vertical center line assumes a "3 in 8" slant, that is, until the point A, in the ac- 
companying cut, has moved to the right through a distance of ^ of the height of the letter. 

With these explanations of the general theory of the slant letter, no difficulties should be en- 
countered. 



zi 



ABCDEF GHIJ 

KLMNOPO 
RSTUVWXYZ 

1234567890S: 



22 



">\' 



LOWER CASE ROMAN LETTERS 

The unit of measure for the lower case letters is one-tenth (i/io) of the height of the "full height" 
letters, that is the b, d, 1, etc. The height of the short letters, the i, (excluding the dot), tne v, z, etc., 
is three-fiL;l:-= the height of the 1, that is 6/10 or 6 units. The thickness of the 1, i, and all straight heavy 
strokes is one-tenth the height of the 1, or one unit. The other principles set forth in the study of the 
Capital letters apply here. For instance, all curved portions touching the guide lines extend an 
eighth (i/g) unit beyond. The regular curved heavy strokes are ij/g units thick. The grace curves on 
the heavy strokes are y^ U radius, and on the light strokes are one unit radius, etc. The similar letters 
of both alphabets are made according to the same methods, as in the S, VV, X, etc. 

The numerals for this style are the same as those of the Roman Vertical Capitals. 



23 



^"i j.b^H 





^L 



24 





25 



I 1 



abcdefghijklm 



nopqrstuvwxyz 



26 



GOTHIC LETTERING— VERTICAL CAPITALS 

(Sometimes called Egyptian or Block Letters) 

The unit of measure of the Gothic Letter is one-seventh (1/7) of the height. The thickness of all 
strokes is one unit, the curved strokes being the same thickness as the straight. 

The accompanying diagrams give all the necessary information for laying out the letters. 



GOTHIC LETTERING— SLANT CAPITALS 

The slant for the Gothic letter is the same as for all slant lettering, that is "3 in 8," and the unit of 
measure again is one-seventh (1/7) of the height. See the diagrams, pp. 30 and 31. 



27 




-55 



it 



-4-5 



Hi- 




-6i- 



H 



hH 



H I 




-^ 



I^ 




*ir 




i^^:^ 



'h -t^P 



28 



\^H-\ 




29 - 



30 



31 



ABCDEFGHIJKLMNO 
PQRSTUVWXYZ<Jc 
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNO 
PQRSTUVWXYZ& 
12 34 5678 90 

I23A-5 6 78 90 



32 



ITALIC LETTERING— LOWER CASE 

The unit of measure for the Italic letter is one-tenth (i/io) of the height, as is the case with the 
vertical lower case Roman. The straight strokes are one unit thick while the curved strokes such as 
in the c, o, etc., are i^i unit thick. When this style is made very small it may be done as a one-stroke 
letter, greater pressure being exerted for the heavy stroke. In making this as a purely free-hand 
letter, care must be exercised to get the "3 in 8" strokes parallel in order to present the best ap- 
pearance. 



. OLD ENGLISH 

See page 36 

( , 

The cut of the "Old English" letters is presented not as a standard style, as there are a great many 
good styles of Old English lettering. This is only one of them. 



33 





34 





35 



(LbcdefghiJklmnopqrstiJLVwxyzx 



mi Ungual) 

®11 




N(0P(!^S 





3(12 



abriffgljtiklmnnpqr 



36 



TABLES OF WIDTHS 



For handy reference the following tables are given showing the widths in units of the various 
letters and numerals. 









ROMAN CAPITALS 


Unit=l-7 






1 


4X 


5 


5X 


S'A 


5^ 


6 


6X 


6K 


7 


8>^ 


I 


J 


L 

N 


HF 
EU 
PR 


V AK 
XB 


S 


T 
Z 
D 


MY 
CG 


& 




Q 


W 







ITALIC— 


LOWER CASE 


Unit= 


1-10 




1 


4 


4^ 


5 


5X 


sy2 


5K 


6 


8 


i 


t 


k 


j 


n 


ah d 


c 





w 


I 




r 


s 

V 

y 


u 


fgh 
pqx 

z 


e 




w 







LOWER CASE— ROMAN 


Unit=l 


-10 




1 


4 


4X 


4K 


5 


5>^ 


6 


7>^ 


9 


i 


f 


t 


r 


agh 


bed 


o 


w 


m 


1 


] 






n s u 
V X y 
z 


e k p 

q 











NUMERALS— ROMAN 


Unit=l-7 




1 


4>^ 


4^ 


5 


5X 


5K 


1 


7 


2 


4 

5 


3 6 
8 9 


4 




37 



TABLE OF WIDTHS {Continued) 



VERTICAL GOTHIC CAPITALS Unit=l-7 




SLANT GOTHIC CAPITALS Unit=l-7 


1 
I 


4>^ 


5 


5K 


sy2 


sy. 


6 


6K 


6H 


7 


8^ 


1 


5 


5M 


6 


6>i 


6K 


6^ 


7 


iy2 


9K 


J 
L 


F 


E 
P 


BH 

N R 
UZ 


s 


AD 
KT 

V 


CG 
MO 
X Y 


Q 


& 


W 


I 


F 

J 
L 


E 
P 
R 


BH 

NT 
UZ 


K 

S 


A D 

OV 

Y 


Q 
X 


C 
G 

M 


& 


W 





VERTICAL GOTHIC NUMERALS 


Unit = l-7 


1 


4K 


5 


sy 


5K 


6 


r 


7 


2 


3 5 

6 8 

9 





4 





SLANT GOTHIC NUMERALS 


Unit = l-7 


1 


sy 


5^ 


6y 


6>^ 


1 


2 
7 


3 5 

6 8 

9 





4 



38 



SPACING 



The "science" of correct spacing has always been an elusive subject. In fact it has never been 
reduced to a science but remains an art. Many attempts, and some of them clever, have been made to 
provide a rule or set of rules whereby letters can be automatically spaced in forming words and appear 
to be equidistant from each other. 

The ideal to be reached, of course, is that the individual letters shall appear uniformly spaced. Of 
the many attempts to do this "mechanically" none of them so far have succeeded. It has proved as 
perplexing and futile a task as the solution of the problem of perpetual motion, and will probably never 
be solved for the same reason. The reason, too, is obvious. 

If we were dealing in similarly shaped characters the problem would be easy. But practically every 
letter having an entirely different shape and on account of the infinite number of combinations in 
which we are called upon to place the letters, there can be but one rule for spacing and that is a simple 
one — The eye is the rule. 

As the eye must be the final judge, and as the letters in a word must all appear to be equally 
spaced aj^art, though they cannot be so mechanically, the surest and shortest cut to correct spacing is 
to satisfy the eye at the start in the "blocking out" of the letters. Refer to figures 4 and 5, page 6, 
for a graphic illustration of the fundamental principle involved in spacing. 



39 



A few general observations here will be helpful. One should not refer to lettering printed from 
type as a model for spacing. While some careful typesetting can present the effect of correct spacing, 
it is usually not practicable, and often impossible. The following is an example. In the word 

MILTON MILTON 

either in the Gothic or Roman Capitals it is not possible to have the space between the L and T appear 
equal to the other spaces unless the whole word should be spaced out more than the regular run of the 
composition, which would be just as bad. 

In hand lettering a greater flexibility is possible. In the case of the L and T in the word "MILTON," 
for example, the arm of the T can be placed directly over the foot of the L or they can be made to 
overlap if necessary to insure a uniform appearance in the spacing. 

Another common difficulty in spacmg is encountered in the word LAW. 

In hand lettering the base of the L is usually shortened, as is the foot of the A, in order to place the 
two letters as close together as possible, thus reducing the intervening space to a minimum. 

The chief thing to bear in mind in spacing is to keep the areas of the spaces between the 
letters as apparently equal as possible. 



40 



There being so many different shapes to these spaces is another reason why a satisfactory "auto- 
matic" system of spacing has not been possible. 

Another element to be considered in spacing is the character of the adjoining strokes. For ex- 
ample, in the combination HI two heavy straight strokes come together ; in NM two light strokes ad- 
join ; in IM a heavy and a light stroke adjoin ; DO, two heavy curved strokes ; ON, a curved and a light 
stroke; DI, curved and straight heavy stroke; and there are numerous other combinations of strokes. 

Two heavy strokes must be spaced farther apart than two light strokes, which in turn must be 
closer spaced than a light and heavy stroke. 

The shapes and positions of the adjoining strokes must also be considered. Note these examples : 
JUJ; LAL; LIL; AVR; CVC ; lEX; KXE; OPO ; TVA; YVZ. It will be observed that the rela- 
tiA'^e position of the strokes is an important factor. It is obvious that the "J and U" must be spaced 
farther apart than the "U and J" ; same with the LA and AL, and so on, because of the difference in 
the shapes and positions of the various adjoining strokes. 

Finally, each factor controlling the spacing is not considered individually. But the eye instinc- 
tively takes all these factors into consideration at a glance. The space between the letters of a word 
is determined by the placing of the first two letters. After that each letter must be blocked in lightly 
in pencil at such a space from the preceding letter as will "balance" with the preceding space. 

The importance of correct spacing must not be underestimated. The effect of good lettering may 
be injured by poor spacing. 



41 



MARGINAL LETTERING (For Map Work). 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 
abcdefghij kl mnopqrstuvwxyz 

OTHER STYLES OF ONE-STROKE LETTERS 
For Rapid Work 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 



abcdefghijklmnopqrsfuvwxy 



z 



1234567890 123^567890 



42 



The 
Topographers' Scale 






TOPOGRAPHERS' SCALE 

COLUMBIA SCHOOL OF DRAFTING 
v/vaSminjgtoim , D C 



IlWuiJilil'M'u'Uil.LhM' 



SVSUJ.3^ JSVD a/J?/v*07 VO^ s-J-iivr^ 



I.M.M.I.I.I.IJ.IJ 



aSMuj. J, 

, I . I , M ,T 



I'.'l .'I /I .'I fl .'l,,'! ,'l ,'l , 



In standard lettering, as used in Topographic Drafting, the capital letters are laid out in "units" 
one-seventh the height of the letters. As ordinary scales do not provide this unusual division of the 
inch, three-quarter inch, etc., a special scale has been devised and is now manufactured, giving seventh 
divisions for various heights of letters. On the opposite edge the tenth units are given for the lower 
case letters. 

For sale at 20 cents each, by the Columbia School of Drafting, McLachlen Building, Tenth and G 
streets N. W., Washington, D. C. 



43 




The 
"3 in 8" Triangle 



The correct slant for lettering is three parts in eight, or approximately 21.3°. A thirty degree 
slant is sometimes used because the 30° triangle is handy, but that slant is incorrect. 

The "3 in 8" triangle supplies the need. 



For sale at 20 cents each, by the Columbia School of Drafting, McLachlen Building, Tenth and G 
streets N. W., Washington, D. C. 



^^K 



^^0 



44 



^i 



y 



^ 



z*^ 



